Teaching Methods
Below, find descriptions and examples of as well as suggestions for implementing a variety of instructional methods.
= video resource
Video series - Faculty discuss how they use a variety of instructional techniques including classroom clickers, mastery quizzes, guided discovery using case studies, in-class writing activities, and many more. Although this series was constructed for psychology instructors, many topics apply to any discipline.
Video series - Award-winning teachers at Stanford discuss a variety of teaching topics. iTunes required.
Teaching handbook - very extensive document with lots of good advice on designing a class that motivates learning, matching teaching methods to objectives, measuring and evaluating student learning, collecting feedback to improve teaching and learning, teaching to learn, and more - from The Schreyer Institute for Teaching Excellence at Penn State University
"Student ratings of teaching: A summary of the research and literature" - IDEA Paper 50 - from The IDEA Center
"Seven principles for good practice in undergraduate education" - frequently-cited article that describes principles distilled from the research on teaching and learning
"Implementing the seven principles: Technology as lever" - suggestions for using technology to leverage these principles
Collection of ideas for using technology to leverage seven principles
Active Learning and Engagement
INTRODUCTION: Making active learning work - a good, detailed tutorial - from the Center for Teaching and Learning at the Univ. of Minnesota
What is active learning? - from the Center for Excellence in Teaching and Learning at the University of California, Davis
"Learning by doing" - essay by Richard M. Felder and Rebecca Brent
"Active learning: Creating excitement in the classroom" - another good overview from Charles Bonwell and James Eison
EXAMPLE: Two-minute pause in the lecture - from the Center for Teaching Development at UC-San Diego
Overcoming obstacles to more student-centered instruction - good article describing a number of obstacles and strategies to overcome them
"Basic instructor habits to keep students engaged" - by Carl Wieman
Promoting active learning - 29 specific techniques and strategies
Active learning resources - quite a few here
Engaging students in large classes - an experienced teachers describes how she engages her students to be active learners - from the Center for Research on Learning and Teaching at the University of Michigan
Using technology and collaboration to engage students - an experienced teacher "discusses how he revised a course to increase student motivation and engagement using project-based learning and technology tools, such as blogs and wikis." - from the Center for Research on Learning and Teaching at the University of Michigan
"Flipping your course" - Typically, instructors present information in class and then ask students to use, think about, or apply that information outside of class through assignments or homework. "Flipping a course" refers to reversing that process so that students are learning the information outside of class, and class time is then used for more student engagement through application, discussion, and other uses of the information. Primarily, it is about using class less for information sharing and more for student engagement. Essay by Dakin Burdick.
"Top ten strategies to integrate social justice into the classroom" - from the Center for Teaching and Faculty Development at San Francisco State University
INTRODUCTION: "Effective lecturing" - good introduction and overview - IDEA Paper 46 - from The IDEA Center
Designing smart lectures - a good, detailed tutorial -- includes some video examples - from the Center for Teaching and Learning at the Univ. of Minnesota
Lecturing effectively - some good suggestions from the Handbook on instruction from Florida State University
Tips on effective teaching (particularly lecturing) - This is a good checklist to review as you examine your lecturing or discussion-leading - from the Center for Teaching and Learning at Stanford University.
Interactive lectures - "This module on Interactive Lectures has strategies and specific examples of activities to involve students in large and small lecture-based classes." - from the Science Education Resource Center at Carleton College
Including "change-ups" in lectures - To recapture or maintain student attention, it is often necessary to intersperse lecture with active engagement in some way.
Twenty ways to make lectures more participatory - from the Derek Bok Center for Teaching and Learning, Harvard University
Using graphic organizers - IDEA Paper 51 - from the IDEA Center - "This paper explores how to use a range of graphic organizers to better communicate course concepts and ideas to students. You may find an organizer that will help you communicate concepts and the relationship among concepts more effectively while helping your students make stronger learning connections." (Becky Clemente)
Using cues, questions, and advance organizers
What is and how to create good advance organizers - from The Northeast Texas Network Consortium Coordinating Office
INTRODUCTION: Using cases in teaching - good, detailed overview of the process - from Information Technology Services at Penn State University
EXAMPLES: Case Study Teaching in Science - a tremendous resource with many well-constructed cases, articles on teaching through cases, and more - from the National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science
Teaching using case studies - another good overview - from the UK Centre for Materials Education
Resources for case writing - from The Schreyer Institute for Teaching Excellence at Penn State University
"Using case studies to teach science" - from the American Institute of Biological Sciences
INTRODUCTION: Problem-based learning - from the PBL Network at the Illinois Math and Science Academy - also find a nice summary of the common steps of PBL, and sample problems/scenarios/tutorials.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Problem-based learning - articles on PBL from the PBL Network
EXAMPLES: The Institute for Transforming Undergraduate Education at the University of Delaware provides some sample syllabi and problems for PBL. If you register for free for the PBL Clearinghouse at this site you get access to a much larger number of examples across many disciplines.
Brief overview of PBL - from the Maricopa Center for Learning and Instruction
Resources on PBL - The Center for Teaching, Learning and Scholarship at Samford University provides an excellent overview of PBL, a good description of the process of implementing it, and a large collection of course examples (portfolios).
Problem-based case learning - a variation on problem-based learning using cases - includes a thorough description of the process as well as videos of PBCL at work
Video example - This 24-minute video uses a couple problem examples to take you through the process of using problem-based learning, including video of students working on a problem. It provides a very detailed illustration of how PBL can work.
INTRODUCTION - from the Science Education Resource Center at Carleton College
General
INTRODUCTION: "Effective classroom discussions" - a good overview of the purposes, processes, and roles of classroom discussion - IDEA Paper 49 - from The IDEA Center
"Facilitating discussion: A brief guide" - an excellent and rather detailed set of suggestions for encouraging participation, creating rapport, using small groups and more - from the John S. Knight Institute for Writing in the Disciplines at Cornell University
Effective discussion questions - from the Center for Teaching and Learning at Stanford Univ.
"Getting more out of classroom discussion" - from the Center for Teaching & Learning at UC-Santa Cruz
Increasing student participation
Increasing student participation - some suggestions - from The Teaching Center at Washington University in St. Louis
Increasing student participation - more suggestions
"Encouraging student participation in discussion" - a good set of strategies - from Tools of Teaching by Barbara Gross Davis
How to get students to talk in class - from the Center for Teaching and Learning at Stanford University
Getting shy students to participate - a few ideas - from the Center for Teaching and Learning at Berkeley
Student-led discussion groups - from The Schreyer Institute for Teaching Excellence at Penn State University
Feedback discussions - a technique to foster the development of discussion skills - "Divide the class into two groups. One group will be part of an inside circle having a discussion and the other half will be taking notes on group dynamics and the quality of the discussion. The inside group will be given a designated number of questions to discuss on a particular topic. (At the midpoint in the class the groups will switch roles.) The instructor takes his/her place in the outside circle and should not interfere unless absolutely necessary." - from the Teaching and Learning Center at the Univ. of Oregon
"Answering and asking questions" - some good suggestions - IDEA Paper 31 - from The IDEA Center
Asking and answering questions - suggestions for asking good questions and responding to student questions - from the Office of Educational Development at Berkeley
"Asking more effective questions" - contrasts convergent and divergent questions as well as high-level and low-level questioning to provide a lot of good suggestions - from William McComas and Linda Abraham
Responding to wrong or not-very-good answers - from The Faculty Development Program at Northern Arizona University
Using debates - an example of a format to promote debate and reflection on it - from the Center for Teaching and Learning at Berkeley
Some more suggestions for fostering discussion/participation - from the Center for Teaching Excellence at the Univ. of Maryland
Some more suggestions for fostering discussion - from the Center for Instructional Development and Research at the Univ. of Washington
"Engaging students in discussion online" - from the Center for Instructional Development and Research at the Univ. of Washington
EXAMPLE: Two-minute pause in the lecture - from the Center for Teaching Development at UC-San Diego
INTRODUCTION: "Promoting deep learning" - IDEA Paper 47 - from The IDEA Center
Using graphic organizers - IDEA Paper 51 - from the IDEA Center - "This paper explores how to use a range of graphic organizers to better communicate course concepts and ideas to students. You may find an organizer that will help you communicate concepts and the relationship among concepts more effectively while helping your students make stronger learning connections." (Becky Clemente)
"Strategies to improve student writing" - IDEA Paper 48 - from The IDEA Center
Developing writing assignments
"Checklist for designing writing assignments"
Evaluating writing assignments
"Ten recommendations for evaluating student writing"
Responding to student writing - some advice
Identifying similarities and differences - good research-based advice on how and why to encourage students to recognize similarities and differences - from Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory
"Helping your students develop critical thinking skills" - IDEA Paper 37 - from The IDEA Center
Nonlinguistic representation - Research finds that students learn best when learning through both linguistic and nonlinguistic representations, such as images, auditory input, movement, and graphic organizers (see concept mapping below).
Using graphic organizers - IDEA Paper 51 - from the IDEA Center - "This paper explores how to use a range of graphic organizers to better communicate course concepts and ideas to students. You may find an organizer that will help you communicate concepts and the relationship among concepts more effectively while helping your students make stronger learning connections." (Becky Clemente)
Good overview and step-by-step guide - from Michael Zeilik, University of New Mexico
Concept mapping - another description of how concept mapping can be used to foster interconnections of concepts, this time in mathematics
Concept mapping - the why and how of concept (mind) mapping - from Karen Rohrbauck Stout, Western Washington University - includes a particularly good idea on using silent mapping to promote discussion
Why and how of concept maps - a good, detailed article on the theoretical underpinnings of concept maps as well as an extensive description of many ways concept maps can be used for instruction
More readings on concept mapping
Concept maps as assessment tools - good article
Concept maps as formative assessments - "At the beginning of an Introductory Meteorology unit on Moisture in the Atmosphere the instructor passes out copies of a concept map to her students. The major concepts are identified, but detail is missing. As the unit progresses the instructor asks students to add to the original concept map. For example the students could add:
* the types of reservoirs that occur on land
* different types of precipitation
* additional mechanisms such as transpiration
As the unit progresses the students continue to see the major concepts repeatedly, and the instructor can track student understandings of the relationships of parts to the whole (or misconceptions) as they arise by collecting and reviewing the concept maps."
Examples of use of concept mapping for instruction and assessment
Concept Map Assignment 1
Concept Map Assignment 2
Concept Map Assignment 3
Concept Map Assignment 4
Concept Map Assignment 5
Software for concept mapping
Teaching-with-analogy model - description of how to teach with analogies, with a few examples - from The Sourcebook for Teaching Science
Teaching critical reading - from the Graduate Student Instructor Teaching and Resource Center at Berkeley
"Getting students to read: 14 tips" - IDEA Paper 40 - from The IDEA Center
"Using textbooks effectively; getting students to read them" - an essay from Denise Boyd
Considering ways to increase reading of text by students - Becky Clemente points to this good resource: "Some of you may find that the information in this blog post titled 'An Exemplar of Pedagogical Scholarship Takes on Student Reading' and the original research article causes you to consider other ways to create authentic approaches to having your students read assigned text. A brief excerpt may increase your curiosity...'Hoeft surveyed 124 students in two sections of a required first-year seminar course at the small Midwestern two-year liberal arts university where she teaches. She had four objectives in mind. She wanted to know how many students were doing the reading and if those who said they were could demonstrate a basic understanding of the material. She also wanted to compile a list of reasons why students said they did and did not do the readings, and she thought students might have ideas as to what might motivate more of them to complete the assigned readings.Forty-six percent of these students said they were doing the reading. That's a higher percentage than reported in several other studies cited in the article, but still not the percentage any of us would hope for and the next finding is even more distressing. To ascertain whether students had a basic understanding of the reading, Hoeft asked them to paraphrase the assignment in three sentences being as explicit as possible. Only 55% of those who reported doing the reading were able to provide a summary. Hoeft wondered if students said they were doing the reading when they weren't because they thought that's what the professor expected, or were their reading comprehension skills were really this dismal.' Hoeft, M. E. (2012). Why university students don't read: What professors can do to increase compliance. International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 6 (2)."
101 ideas for combining service and learning - from Western New Mexico University
Giving feedback TO students
Providing feedback - good research-based advice from Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory
Getting and using feedback FROM students
A variety of strategies - for collecting and using feedback from students - from the Center for Teaching and Learning at Stanford University
The "muddiest point" technique - Find out what your students are most confused about at the end of a class, and use their responses in a variety of ways - from the Center for Instructional Innovation & Assessment at Western Washington University
Focused listing activity - To see if students were able to identify the main ideas from that day's class - from the Center for Teaching and Faculty Development at San Francisco State University
Student self-assessment for improvement - Students can take the accompanying assessment of their approaches to and attitudes about learning, and then reflect on the results to gain insight into their strengths and weaknesses. From the On Course Workshop.
EXAMPLE: Using student blogs to provide feedback on writing
Groups and Collaborative/Cooperative Learning
INTRODUCTION: Cooperative learning - good overview from the Cooperative Learning Institute and Interactive Book Company
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Cooperative learning - from the Center for Research on Learning and Teaching at the University of Michigan
Collaborative Learning - lots of good information and techniques for collaborative learning - from the National Institute for Science Education
Designing effective group activities - article by Michaelsen, Fink, and Knight
Team-based learning - a specific form of group work with four elements described in this video
Designing group projects more like the real world - This blog entry describes a faculty member's response to ineffective group work.
"Enhancing learning -- and more -- through cooperative learning" - good overview of cooperative learning and good advice - IDEA Paper 38 - from the IDEA Center
"Cooperative learning: Students working in small group" - another good overview and specific suggestions
"Effective strategies for cooperative learning" - good article by Richard Felder and Rebecca Brent
Sample of small group activities for learning - from the Center for Teaching and Learning at Stanford University
The Jigsaw Classroom - lots of resources here - "Here is how it works: The students in a history class, for example, are divided into small groups of five or six students each. Suppose their task is to learn about World War II. In one jigsaw group, Sara is responsible for researching Hitler's rise to power in pre-war Germany. Another member of the group, Steven, is assigned to cover concentration camps; Pedro is assigned Britain's role in the war; Melody is to research the contribution of the Soviet Union; Tyrone will handle Japan's entry into the war; Clara will read about the development of the atom bomb. Eventually each student will come back to her or his jigsaw group and will try to present a well-organized report to the group. The situation is specifically structured so that the only access any member has to the other five assignments is by listening closely to the report of the person reciting."
Working in groups - advice for faculty and students - from the Derek Bok Center at Harvard University
"Commonly asked questions about teaching collaborative activities" - from The Schreyer Institute for Teaching Excellence at Penn State University
"Changing a course from lecture format to cooperative learning" - from the Center for Instructional Development and Research at the University of Washington
Creating classroom connections - a description of techniques used by Joseph Trimble to increase the feelings of connectedness among his students
Using technology to promote student collaboration inside and outside the classroom - a good, hour-long talk by a Stanford English faculty member describing how she uses new, social technologies to foster collaboration
How to effectively incorporate teamwork into your courses - from Teaching and Learning with Technology at Penn State University
Assessing group work - a variety of options of how to do so
Review of research on cooperative learning - article (2009) published in Educational Researcher
Have a link to good resources on teaching? Please e-mail the Center.